To assess this assumption, we considered 58 pieces of evidence obtained from different sources. 

An in-depth search of the MAVA grants database provided 11 pieces of evidence from eight sources that we could use to test this assumption. An initial review highlighted 78 grants relevant to the topic of capacity-building. Documentation – including progress reports, final reports, and technical reports – was searched in detail for indications that linked training with trainee performance.

A targeted questionnaire sent to 40 MAVA grantees provided eight answers as evidence pieces. The questionnaire contained ten questions, one of which was:

– What difference do you see in the implementation of actions before and after the capacity-building activity?

A systematic search of the Conservation Evidence database provided 21 pieces of evidence from 21 sources that we could use to test this assumption. We found these sources using searches for the keywords train, teach, learn, and capacity, supplemented with a search for actions relating to education and awareness. This search returned 142 conservation actions and over 1,000 studies. We prioritised those actions most likely to contain relevant studies, leaving us with 40 actions and 91 studies to search.

Exploratory searches of the wider literature found 18 pieces of evidence from 16 sources. There is extensive literature covering the outcomes of training interventions. We, therefore, made use of high-level, authoritative reviews and meta-analyses to guide our choice of sources in an attempt to provide a balanced view of the state of current knowledge.

On balance, evidence from the MAVA grants database, questionnaires, and wider literature provides some to strong support for this assumption.

Better practice through training

We found examples where training led to more effective action at various levels, from individuals to teams to whole organisations.

Individuals showed improvements in leadership, management, and practical skills (often to support livelihoods). In some cases, there was a shift towards more conservation-oriented behaviours. 

“This new and confident behaviour while still being practised, embedded, and transferred is sparking cultural change in organisations and resulting in numerous cases of sector change through modelling a more inclusive leadership style and sharing learning”

MAVA 2020¹

Team training positively affected many outcomes, including team performance, decision-making, and error reduction. In some cases, team training was only partially effective⁵².

There were positive outcomes at the organisational level for skills relating to management and administration, communications, outreach, advocacy, and developing new tools and platforms.

“As result of close cooperation and Saiga ranger network’s outstanding skills in leadership and staff management, detection and arrest of illegal hunting has been upgraded”

MAVA-G3 2014

Limitations in the effectiveness of training

While evidence broadly supported the assumption, there was one case where training was considered inadequate⁹, in this case to ensure the quality of artisanal products. In another case, the role of coaching was called into question when participants’ performance on tasks did not improve⁵⁰.

One piece of evidence from the MAVA questionnaire refuted the assumption²⁰. It suggests that training and capacity-building may lead only to surface-level changes, which do not carry through to action.

“There are differences in the language you use to communicate with people after years of different capacity-building activities. Everybody knows the situation, the problematics, and the solutions. This, however, is not reflected in more proactive and effective action.”

MAVA 2022

Two sources from the Conservation Evidence database reported that distributing leaflets and information signs was ineffective^{29, 33} in encouraging people to behave more responsibly towards wildlife. While these evidence pieces refuted the assumption, they were judged to have low relevance for the assumption due to the passive methods of information sharing they used.

Assessing effectiveness of training

Evidence from the MAVA grants database rarely involved a formal assessment of the impact of training interventions. More broadly, evidence from the conservation sector often lacked detail on the training methods used and justifications for the choice of methods and measures of success (with some notable exceptions⁵⁶). 

In contrast, the wider training literature was characterised by numerous large-scale, rigorous investigations of the effectiveness of various training interventions in different fields. Tremendous progress has been made in understanding how to design and deliver training interventions effectively and accurately measure their impact.

To assess this assumption, we considered 95 pieces of evidence obtained from different sources. 

An in-depth search of the MAVA grants database provided 28 pieces of evidence from 16 sources that we could use to test this assumption. An initial review highlighted 78 grants relevant to the topic of capacity-building. Documentation – including progress reports, final reports and technical reports – was searched in detail for statements or claims that linked training with the use of skills by trainees.

A targeted questionnaire was sent to 40 grantees to provide further evidence. Five questions focused on the use of skills by trainees:

1. Do trainees apply the acquired skills in their ongoing work?
2. What are the reasons that only a few trainees apply the acquired skills? 
3. If you do not know if the trainees apply the acquired skills in their ongoing work, can you explain the reasons?
4. What do you think was/is the motivation of the trainees to apply the acquired skills? Why is it useful for them to use their skills? 
5. Were there additional actions to the capacity-building activity, ensuring that trainees could apply the acquired skills?

Each answer to Question 1 was used as evidence to test assumption B1. Thirteen answers from Questions 2–5 were used as evidence, and other answers provided context for the discussion.

A systematic search of the Conservation Evidence database provided 22 pieces of evidence from 22 sources that we could use to test this assumption. We found these sources using searches for the keywords train, teach, learn and capacity, supplemented with a search for actions relating to education and awareness. That returned 142 conservation actions and over 1,000 studies. We focused on actions likely to contain relevant studies, leaving us with 110 studies to search.

Exploratory searches of the wider literature provided 32 pieces of evidence from 20 sources. There is extensive literature covering the outcomes of training interventions. We, therefore, made use of high-level, authoritative reviews and meta-analyses to guide our choice of sources in an attempt to provide a balanced view of the state of current knowledge.

Evidence from the MAVA grants database and questionnaires strongly supports this assumption. On balance, support from the wider literature is weak but variable, with many pieces of evidence showing mixed or strong support.

The MAVA questionnaire found that trainees applied their new skills in 27 of 29 cases. Nineteen grantees reported that a majority used their skills, eight reported that a small number did. In two instances, grantees were unsure.

While evidence from the MAVA grants database also found that trainees used their new skills, reports provided little detail on:

• the number of trainees using skills 
• how conditions before, during and after training helped enable the application of new skills
• assessments of whether the goals of training interventions were reached.

“A well-trained and respected ranger team operates throughout the saiga range”

MAVA-G3 2014

“The eco-guards trained in bird counting techniques support the reserve staff in their activities. They have a better understanding of bird counting techniques and at the same time participate in the monitoring and safeguarding of the KRG’s ecosystems.”

MAVA-G6 2018 (translated from French)

Sources from the Conservation Evidence database mainly measured the uptake of conservation-oriented behaviours and knowledge or practical skills that may support livelihoods. One case documented the establishment of community-based management groups following seminars and workshops.

Practical advice for successful training

In the wider literature, decades of research have led to a detailed understanding of how trained skills are applied and practical solutions for designing and delivering successful training.

Ford et al. (2018) propose the following four pillars for designing successful training:

1. Different individuals will learn differently

Conscientiousness is linked to applying learned skills⁷¹, particularly for complex, dynamic tasks⁸⁰.

Trainees must believe in their abilities before, during, and after training^{72, 77, 86}. Trainees that feel motivated to learn and apply new skills are also more likely to do so⁸².

This is in line with the MAVA questionnaire responses, in which MAVA grantees appreciated training that was targeted to their needs and were motivated by a desire to:

• improve their institution
• implement better conservation
• tackle big issues e.g. climate change
• understand new topics, e.g. conservation standards
• learn new skills e.g. fundraising
• make their activities more sustainable e.g. fisheries, agriculture, urban living

2. The design of training and how it is implemented matters

If using behaviour modelling training, consider including both positive and negative examples⁴⁸.

Training in error management can be particularly useful when training open or adaptive skills (Keith & Frese, 2008).

Using multiple learning strategies (e.g. case studies, worked examples, discussions) will likely lead to more effective training (Cook et al., 2013). As will active repetition (Roediger & Butler, 2011), self-explanation, and distributing training over a longer period of time (Dunlosky et al., 2013).

3. Create a supportive work environment and allow trainees to use their new skills

Creating a positive work environment that supports and encourages trainees will increase the chance of them using their new skills^{70, 76,}. Support from both peers and supervisors can play an important role. Mentoring⁸³, coaching⁸⁴, assisting with specific tasks⁸⁵, and assisting with personal and professional challenges⁸⁴ may all help.

Trainees must be given the opportunity to use new skills⁷⁰. Even short periods of non-use after training can be detrimental to skill use in the future^87-88.

The most successful training interventions may arise when trainees are motivated to use their new skills and organisations provide a supportive environment⁸¹.

MAVA grantees appreciated working with professional mentors and sharing knowledge with them. They highlighted several ways that greater support helps them apply new skills:

• Equipment and financial support, e.g. grants to help implement action in the field
• Regular opportunities to meet and share advice between groups with different expertise
• Follow-ups to support skill use, maybe through webinars or social media
• Sharing of critical skills and methods
• Establishing networks of professionals
• Developing tools to help further uptake, e.g. infographics 
• Organisational development, e.g. opening up higher leadership roles 

4. How you measure success can impact your conclusions – be wary of relying on a single measure

Understanding which elements of training worked (and which did not) is key to improving future training interventions (Ford et al., 2018).

Measuring the impact of training often focuses on four things: reaction to training; learning from training; behaviours; and results following training. Those measuring the impact of training should be clear about what the intended learning is and select measures that reflect their chosen learning outcomes (Salas et al., 2012).

Measuring the use of learned skills is more challenging when trainees differ in their peak performance compared to their typical day-to-day performance (“can do” vs “will do”). Poor peak performance may be explained by inadequate training. In contrast, poor day-to-day performance may be explained by a failure to motivate and support trainees sufficiently⁸⁶.

We found little evidence of MAVA grantees conducting assessments of their training needs. Therefore, we instead identified the types of training that grantees conducted and the recipients of that training. An in-depth search of the MAVA grants database provided 78 relevant grants. We supplemented this with a questionnaire sent to 40 MAVA grantees.

Exploratory searches of the wider literature found a high-level review of the practical implications of findings from training research. They make a case for the importance of conducting a detailed training needs analysis before training begins. We present a series of their recommendations that should form the basis of any successful training programme.

Training topics and audiences in MAVA grants

When assessing the MAVA grants database, we identified 32 training topics and 19 target audiences (see the evidence capture sheet for details).

The top three learning topics covered by training interventions were:

1. Ecosystem/biodiversity management or conservation – taught 71 times to 13 different target audiences
2. Monitoring methods and tools – taught 39 times to 11 different target audiences
3. Climate change – taught 34 times to 16 different target audiences

The top three target audiences for training interventions were:

1. Protected area managers and staff – received 54 training interventions on 17 topics
2. Environmental NGOs – received 39 training interventions on 15 topics
3. Civil society organisations or community-based organisations – received 33 training interventions on 13 topics

The top three combinations of learning topic and target audience were:

1. Training in ecosystem/biodiversity management or conservation for protected area managers and staff – 11 training interventions
2. Training in ecosystem/biodiversity management or conservation for environmental NGOs – 10 training interventions
3. Training in ecosystem/biodiversity management or conservation for conservation professionals in general – 10 training interventions

Training needs analysis as a tool

A review article on the practical implications of training research made a series of recommendations for conducting a detailed training needs analysis (Salas et al., 2012).

The purpose of a training needs analysis is to determine 1) what needs to be trained; 2) who needs to be trained; 3) within what kind of organisational system will training and subsequent work occur.

The key outcomes of the analysis are:

1. Expected learning outcomes
2. Guidance for design and delivery of training
3. Plan for evaluating training
4. Information about the organisation that may help or hinder training efforts

The three key components of training needs analysis are (adapted from Salas et al., 2012):

1. Job task analysis
   • Given a clear training objective, identify the critical knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to complete these tasks.
   • This step is often replaced by asking trainees, “what training do you want to take?” However, trainees may not be able to articulate their real training needs. When jobs are knowledge-based, conducting an additional cognitive task analysis may be necessary.
   • When trainees work in teams, consider a team task analysis. That should highlight which tasks require coordination and how team members can coordinate.
2. Organisational analysis
   • Here the focus is on the training needs of the organisation. Consider whether the organisation’s strategic priorities are aligned with potential training endeavours.
   • An assessment of the organisation’s readiness to receive the training and support the trainees is of equal importance. Organisational support can be vital in ensuring trainees apply their newly learned skills.
   • Support could involve providing encouragement and tolerating mistakes; covering other tasks the trainee may have; or providing opportunities to practice and use newly acquired skills.
3. Person analysis
   • The final step is to identify who needs training and what training they need. Those lacking the skills identified in the job task analysis will be priority candidates for training.
   • Assessing the critical characteristics of potential trainees will also allow training design to suit their needs. Considering what motivates trainees and whether they are learning or performance-oriented may help.

We considered 21 pieces of evidence obtained from different sources to assess this assumption.

An in-depth search of the MAVA grants database provided only one piece of evidence that we could use to test this assumption. An initial review highlighted 78 grants relevant to the topic of capacity-building. Documentation – including progress reports, final reports, and technical reports – was searched in detail for statements or claims that linked training with staff turnover.

Exploratory searches of the wider literature found 20 pieces of evidence from 15 sources that we could use to test this assumption. This assumption was covered less extensively than others in training and capacity-building. However, we found one literature review to help guide the search for evidence.

This assumption is beyond the scope of the Conservation Evidence database.

On balance, the evidence neither strongly supports nor refutes the assumption. Evidence for this assumption was notably lacking from the MAVA grants database, with only a single piece found.

Training may be oen of many factors that impact staff turnover, but is unlikely to be the most important. Other factors include job satisfaction, working conditions and hours, pay, and opportunities for progression. Training may have links with some of these other factors^{11, 15}, and poor training might exacerbate other problems that cause employees to leave¹¹.

The potential for progression within the organisation can also impact perceptions of training. While hotel managers had a somewhat positive view of training in one study, employees were less enthusiastic and over half of employees reported training fatigue⁷.

The types of skills being trained also matter, as does whether those skills increase trainee prospects at their current job or the broader job market^{8, 16}. Employees trained in open, transferable skills²⁰ or multi-skill training⁸ may be more likely to seek employment elsewhere.